X-Ray Metrology in Semiconductor Manufacturing provides real solutions with a focus on accuracy, repeatability, and throughput.

Features:

• Offers the first practical guide to x-ray metrology methods and applications
• Reflects the knowledge of distinguished leaders in the field and the industrial experience of the world's leading semiconductor XRM company
• Emphasizes practical metrology, focusing on real-world problems and solutions organized by application
• Supplies an abundance of examples, illustrations, and references to more in-depth theoretical information
• Includes summaries of fundamentals and key concepts for each method placed in "grey boxes" throughout the book

Contents

The Applications

• Scope of X-Ray Metrology (XRM)
• Specular X-Ray Reflectivity (XRR)
• Diffuse Scatter
• X-Ray Diffraction
• High-Resolution X-Ray Diffraction
• Diffraction Imaging and Defect Mapping
• X-Ray Fluorescence
• Thickness Metrology
• Dielectrics and Metals
• Multiple Layers
• Epitaxial Layers
• Composition and Phase Metrology
• Amorphous Films
• Polycrystalline Films
• Wafers and Epitaxial Films
• Strain and Stress Metrology
• Strain and Stress in Polycrystalline Layers
• Relaxation of Epitaxial Layers
• Thin Strained Silicon Layers
• Whole Wafer Defect Metrology
• Mosaic Metrology
• Grain Size Measurement
• Mosaic Structure in Substrate Wafers
• Mosaic Structure in Epilayers
• Interface Roughness Metrology
• Interface Width and Roughness
• Distinction of Roughness and Grading
• Roughness Determination in Semiconductors
• Roughness Determination in Metallic Films
• Roughness Determination in Dielectrics
• Porosity Metrology
• Determination of Porosity
• Determination of Pore Size and Distribution
• Pores in Single Crystals

The Science

• Specular X-Ray Reflectivity
• Specular Reflectivity from a Single Ideal Interface
• Specular Reflectivity from a Single Graded or Rough Interface
• Specular Reflectivity from a Single Thin Film on a Substrate
• Specular Reflectivity from Multiple Layers on a Substrate
• X-Ray Diffuse Scattering
• Origin of Diffuse Scatter from Surfaces and Interfaces
• The Born Approximation
• The Distorted-Wave Born Approximation
• Effect of Interface Parameters on Diffuse Scatter
• Multiple-Layer Structures
• Diffuse Scatter Represented in Reciprocal Space
• Theory of XRD on Polycrystals
• Kinematical Theory of X-Ray Diffraction
• Determination of Strain
• Determination of Grain Size
• Texture
• Reciprocal Space Geometry
• High-Resolution XRD on Single Crystals
• Dynamical Theory of X-Ray Diffraction
• The Determination of Epilayer Parameters
• High-Resolution Diffraction in Real and Reciprocal Space
• Diffraction Imaging and Defect Mapping
• Contrast in X-Ray Diffraction Imaging (XRDI)
• Spatial Resolution in XRDI
• X-Ray Defect Imaging Methods
• Example Applications

The Technology

• Modeling and Analysis
• What Has Been Measured?
• Direct Methods
• Data-Fitting Methods
• The Differential Evolution Method
• Requirements for Automated Analysis
• Instrumentation
• X-Ray Sources
• X-Ray Optics
• Mechanical Technology
• Detectors
• Practical Realizations
• Accuracy and Precision of X-Ray Metrology
• Design of X-Ray Metrology
• Repeatability and Reproducibility
• Accuracy and Trueness
• Repeatability and Throughput
• Absolute Tool Matching
• Specimen-Induced Limitations

Index

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